From b9a0ac8aed54c7424f37409e0b7d9c430894e7ec Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Duncan Hall Date: Sun, 27 Mar 2016 23:37:51 -0400 Subject: [PATCH] submitting --- 46421.txt | 1634 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ README.md | 2 +- frequency.py | 46 +- 3 files changed, 1676 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-) create mode 100644 46421.txt diff --git a/46421.txt b/46421.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7cd09c2 --- /dev/null +++ b/46421.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1634 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Coyotes in Their Economic Relations, by David E. Lantz + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Coyotes in Their Economic Relations + +Author: David E. Lantz + +Release Date: July 26, 2014 [EBook #46421] + +Language: English + + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COYOTES *** + + + + +Produced by Tom Cosmas utilizing materials provided on The +Internet Archive + + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +Text emphasis displayed as _Italic Text_. + + + + + + U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE + + BIOLOGICAL SURVEY--BULLETIN No. 20 + + C. HART MERRIAM, Chief + + + + + COYOTES IN THEIR ECONOMIC RELATIONS + + + BY + + + DAVID E. LANTZ + + Assistant, Biological Survey + + + [Illustration] + + + WASHINGTON + + GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE + + 1905 + + + + +LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL + + U. S. Department of Agriculture, + Biological Survey, + _Washington, D. C., March 23, 1905._ + +Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith for publication +as Bulletin No. 20 of the Biological Survey a report on Coyotes in +their Economic Relations, prepared by David E. Lantz, assistant. The +subject is of immediate importance to the sheep industry of the West, +where the wasteful method of sheep herding prevails. If in the range +country sheep can be fenced with coyote-proof fencing at moderate cost, +as seems probable, herding may be done away with and the sustaining +capacity of the lands thereby greatly increased. + + Respectfully, + + C. Hart Merriam, + _Chief, Biological Survey,_ + + Hon. James Wilson, + _Secretary of Agriculture._ + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page. + + Introduction 7 + + Abundance of coyotes 8 + Coyotes in Kansas 9 + + General habits of coyotes 10 + + Food habits of coyotes 11 + Beneficial habits 12 + Injurious habits 13 + Game destroyed by coyotes 14 + Depredations on farm animals 14 + The coyote's relation to the sheep industry 16 + + Means of destruction 18 + Poisoning 18 + Trapping 19 + Hunting 20 + Bounties 22 + + Protection against coyotes 23 + + Investigations concerning coyote-proof fencing 24 + + + + +COYOTES IN THEIR ECONOMIC RELATIONS + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The small prairie wolves of the western and southwestern parts of +North America are generally known by the Spanish name 'coyote.' +This serves to distinguish them from the larger gray or dusky wolves +that occur in many portions of the same range. + +Intermediate in size between the foxes and the larger wolves, yet +varying greatly in this respect with the different species, the coyotes +are outwardly characterized by a sharp-pointed muzzle, upright ears, +and a moderately long, bushy tail. The pelage is full, especially in +winter. The usual color is a dirty gray, with more or less reddish +tinge about the head, neck, and legs, and black hairs showing about +the shoulders and on the back. The extent of the red and the black +varies much with the different species. + +Coyotes are generally distributed from the central Mississippi Valley +to the Pacific coast and from Costa Rica on the south to the plains +of the Athabasca on the north.[A] In this extensive range about a +dozen species have been thus far recognized.[B] Four of these are +restricted to Mexico and Central America. Of the eight forms that +occur in the United States, it may be remarked that their ranges and +relations to each other have not been fully determined. Much material +is yet needed before anyone can write with exact knowledge of +their distribution. + +[Footnote A: Edward A. Preble informs the writer that the coyote has +been captured at Fort Smith, northern Athabasca (60° north latitude), +and on Nelson River in northeastern British Columbia (59° north +latitude).] + +[Footnote B: The following is a list of the forms: + + 1. _Canis latrans_ Say. Type from Council Bluffs, Iowa. + 2. _C. nebracensis_ Merriam. Type from Johnstown. Nebraska. + 3. _C. lestes_ Merriam. Type from Toyabe Mountains. Nevada. + 4. _C. frustror_ Woodhouse. Type from Fort Gibson, Indian Territory. + 5. _C. mearnsi_ Merriam. Type from Quitobaquita, Arizona. + 6. _C. estor_ Merriam. Type from San Juan River, Utah. + 7. _C. cagottis_ II. Smith. Type from Rio Frio, Mexico. + 8. _C. ochropus_ Escholtz. San Joaquin Valley, California. + 9. _C. peninsulæ_ Merriam. Type from Santa Anita. Lower California, + Mexico. + 10. _C. microdon_ Merriam. Type from Mier. Tamaulipas. Mexico. + 11. _C. vigilis_ Merriam. Type from Manzanillo. Colima, Mexico. + 12. _C. goldmani_ Merriam. Type from San Vicente. Chiapas, Mexico. +] + +A group in which there is so much variation in size must also present +considerable diversity of habits. The larger forms, like _C. latrans_, +are, of course, the more injurious to the live-stock interests. Smaller +species, like _C. estor_ and _microdon_, confine themselves in their +food more to the smaller wild mammals and thus do much less damage. Yet +it is not the intention in this preliminary bulletin to consider the +species separately. Indeed, no such detailed study of their habits has +yet been made. The present paper deals with the group as a whole, and +is confined to a discussion of the economic relations of coyotes in +general to our agricultural interests. + +In the matter of fencing to protect sheep and poultry against coyote +depredations, the Biological Survey has made some preliminary +investigations, and has formulated plans for more extensive experiments +in the near future. In the meantime it is hoped that farmers and +ranchmen throughout the West who have had personal experience of the +efficiency of various forms of fence as a protection against coyotes +and other wild animals will write the Biological Survey fully as to +such experience. + + + + +ABUNDANCE OF COYOTES. + + +Coyotes are abundant in most parts of their range, except the extreme +north and the more thickly populated regions where waste lands are +scarce. It is, however, on the plains of the western part of the United +States that they come most closely in contact with the advancing +tide of settlement. The establishment of pioneer homes throughout +the country has always resulted in restricting the numbers of the +larger wolves, which have gradually become extinct over large areas +in the eastern and middle parts of the United States where they were +formerly abundant. Not so with the coyote. Except in a few thickly +settled regions, it has thrived upon civilization and is practically +as numerous as it was before settlements began. Indeed, in many parts +of the West coyotes are said to be increasing in spite of a constant +warfare against them. + +The introduction of domestic birds and mammals has provided the coyotes +with an additional food supply always available and entirely precluding +any danger of starvation. Then, too, the animals are far too suspicious +to be easily destroyed by the use of traps or poisons. Old hunters of +the Plains have informed the writer that while it was comparatively +easy to poison large numbers of the gray wolf, the coyote was not an +easy victim and usually avoided both the baited traps and the poisoned +buffalo carcasses. + +The plains east of the Rocky Mountains and the higher plateaus of +the Great Basin west of the mountains are especially adapted to the +wants of the coyote. Cultivated areas are far apart: stock ranges +are extensive; tall grasses, weeds, cactuses, and sagebrush afford +excellent hiding places; rabbits, prairie dogs, ground squirrels, and +other small animals are plentiful; and, when these natural resources of +the country fail, sheep and young calves furnish abundant food. + +In nearly all the Western States the efforts of ranchmen to destroy +the coyote have been supplemented by laws authorizing the payment of +bounties from public funds. Some of these laws have been in operation +for a score of years or even more and, except locally, no diminution +in the general numbers of the animals has resulted. In some parts of +Mexico where the natives have for many years practiced systematic +poisoning, the coyote is becoming rare, but in most sections of its +range it is either increasing or no substantial decrease has been +observed. + + +COYOTES IN KANSAS. + +The State of Kansas, where settlements are comparatively old and where +man's warfare against the coyote has been long continued, affords +an excellent illustration of the animal's ability to maintain its +numbers under seemingly adverse circumstances. Most of the counties of +the State have for many years paid bounties for killing coyotes, and +conditions have been reached where there is little fluctuation in the +total amount paid from year to year. The returns of the animals killed +for the fiscal twelve months from July 1, 1903, to June 30, 1904, show +that nearly 20,000 scalps were presented for bounty in the State. + +The following is a table, by counties, of the number of coyotes on +which bounties were paid during the year above specified. Of the 11 +missing counties, 10--Cherokee. Comanche. Finney. Grant, Haskell, +Kearney, Morton, Seward, Stevens, and Wyandotte--paid no bounties, and +1, Doniphan, made no report. The bounty in all cases is $1 for each +animal killed. + +_Number of coyotes on which bounties were paid in Kansas from July 1, +1903, to June 30. 1904._ + + County. Number County. Number County. Number + of coyotes. of coyotes. of coyotes. + + Allen 73 Harper 44 Phillips 400 + Anderson 129 Harvey 99 Pottawatomie 329 + Atchison 48 Hodgeman 74 Pratt 242 + Barber 633 Jackson 86 Rawlins 223 + Barton 109 Jefferson 94 Reno 184 + Bourbon 157 Jewell 106 Republic 52 + Brown 70 Johnson 62 Rice 90 + Butler 186 Kingman 257 Riley 206 + Chase 343 Kiowa 477 Rooks 280 + Chautauqua 451 Labette 137 Rush 144 + Cheyenne 585 Lane 164 Russell 258 + Clark 460 Leavenworth 56 Saline 186 + Clay 104 Lincoln 105 Scott 193 + Cloud 42 Linn 175 Sedgwick 223 + Coffey 159 Logan 329 Shawnee 69 + Cowley 325 Lyon 197 Sheridan 306 + Crawford 51 Marion 166 Sherman 291 + Decatur 240 Marshall 304 Smith 133 + Dickinson 145 McPherson 210 Stafford 142 + Douglas 99 Meade 224 Stanton 188 + Edwards 290 Miami 96 Sumner 401 + Elk 212 Mitchell 100 Thomas 185 + Ellis 248 Montgomery 148 Trego 430 + Ellsworth 193 Morris 176 Wabaunsee 170 + Ford 500 Nemaha 58 Wallace 259 + Franklin 152 Neosho 98 Washington 200 + Geary 102 Ness 273 Wichita 307 + Gove 355 Norton 227 Wilson 210 + Graham 293 Osage 173 Woodson 115 + Greeley[C] 117 Osborne 248 + Greenwood 336 Ottawa 61 Total 19,152 + Hamilton 275 Pawnee 230 + +[Footnote C: six months.] + +The experience in Kansas is not exceptional. It may be duplicated in a +dozen other Western States and in some of the British provinces. It is +probable that the united efforts of the people are keeping the coyotes +in check, and that, were these efforts relaxed, the animals would be +far more abundant; but the coyotes are still so menacing to certain +interests that the subject requires careful investigation to determine +what more may be done to improve present conditions. + + + + +GENERAL HABITS OF COYOTES. + + +The various forms of the coyote seem each to conform to particular +faunal areas. They inhabit all the life zones, from the Lower Boreal, +through the Transition, the Upper and Lower Sonoran, and the semi-arid +parts of the Tropical. In the northern part of its range C. latrans +has a migratory movement southward in winter and north ward in the +spring, probably caused by the limited food supply of the northern +wilds, and varying in degree with the severity of the seasons. A +similar movement of other species in the western part of the United +States from the higher mountain areas to the valleys has been noticed. +In summer the mountain species range above timber line. + +The coyotes are noted for their peculiar prolonged howling. A single +animal is capable of a performance which impresses the uninformed +hearer as the concert of a dozen, and when several join in the medley +the resulting noise is indescribable. They are silent during the day, +but may be heard at any time between sunset and sunrise. + +Coyotes breed but once a year. The mating season is late in January +or early in February. The period of gestation is probably that of +the whole genus _Canis_, which is given by Owen as about sixty-three +days. The young are produced in dens, and number from four to eight or +even more. The dens are usually enlarged from those made by badgers +or smaller animals and are often among rocks or in washed-out places +along banks of streams. Probably at times they are made entirely by +the coyotes. They are rarely far below the surface, but sometimes of +considerable extent and with two or more openings. Little attempt is +made to provide nests for the young. In the Central West these are born +early in April and usually may be heard in the dens during May. In +June they come out to play around the mouths of the burrows, which are +finally deserted during July. By August 1, the young are left by the +parents to shift for themselves. + +In the earlier descriptions, the prairie wolves were usually said +to hunt in packs. Lewis and Clark, Say. Richardson, and others so +reported, but the Prince of Wied met them only singly. It is probable +that they hunt in numbers only when the quarry is large, as in the ease +of deer and antelope; but as many as three have been known to pursue a +single jack rabbit. + + + + +FOOD HABITS OF COYOTES. + + +The food of coyotes has been a subject of investigation by the field +naturalists of the Biological Survey, whenever opportunity offered. A +number of stomach examinations have been made in the field: but trapped +animals are often found with empty stomachs. In the case of a number of +the species nothing definite is known of the food. + +The stomachs examined contained mainly animal matter, but in two cases +vegetable remains were found. One examined by Vernon Bailey contained +a quantity of ripe cultivated plums: and William Lloyd found a coyote +that had eaten mesquite beans. In northern Arizona Doctor Merriam +saw a coyote eating a watermelon, and a correspondent al Russell, +Kans., says that they sometimes cat ripe melons. In California they +cat peaches, apricots, grapes, and other fruits. They cat also +juniper berries, manzanita berries, and the fruit of the prickly pear +(_Opuntia_). + +Only one case of insect-eating has been observed by the Biological +Survey. The same animal that had eaten plums had in its stomach the +remains of a large cricket (_Stenopelmatus fasciatus_). + +Coyotes feed greedily upon all kinds of animal food. This ranges +from the larger hoofed mammals to the smallest rodents, and includes +also birds, reptiles, fish, and crustaceans. Three horned toads +(_Phrynosoma_) were found in the stomach of a specimen killed June +3, 1898, in Big Smoky Valley. Nevada, by Vernon Bailey. On the low +tropical coast of eastern Mexico and Texas members of the Biological +Survey have often seen coyotes searching the beach for crabs, fish, and +turtle eggs. + + +BENEFICIAL HABITS. + +Among the mammals included in the food of the coyotes are many +injurious species; and, so far as their food is confined to these, +the animals are decidedly beneficial to the farming interests of the +country. The destruction of rabbits, both large and small species, is +of great advantage, especially on the plains and in the cultivated +valleys, where their depredations are keenly felt by the settlers. The +various species of jack rabbit have often been observed as included in +the coyotes' fare, and the smaller rabbits are also habitually eaten. +The coyotes usually catch the rabbits by lying in wait behind bushes +and bunches of grass near their paths and pouncing upon them as they +pass. Sometimes they have been known to hunt jack rabbits in company. +While a single coyote would not be able to run down a jack rabbit, by +hunting together, taking turns in the drive, and by taking advantage of +the tendency of the hare to run in a circle, they are able to capture +it. Eye witnesses to such a performance state that they do not fight +over the division of the rabbit's carcass, but that all obtain a share. +The constant warfare of many coyotes upon these rodents has much to +do in keeping down the numbers; and the abundance of rabbits in some +sections of the West has been largely attributed to a local decrease in +the number of coyotes, caused by an unusual activity against them which +had been stimulated by high bounties. + +Prairie dogs (_Cynomys ludovicianus_ and other species) are also a +staple coyote food. The coyote captures them by hiding behind clumps +of weeds or bunches of grass at some distance from the burrows. When +the unsuspecting rodent, in feeding, approaches near enough, a few +leaps enable the coyote to secure it. The grass in a prairie dog +'town' is usually cropped very short, and all tall-growing weeds +are cut down. Sometimes a weed is permitted to grow to maturity on +the cone-like mound sit the mouth of a burrow. Only three species +of weeds have been seen so growing by the writer--the horse nettle +(_Solanum rostratum_), the Mexican poppy (_Argemone_), and a Euphorbia +(_Euphorbia marginata_). These afford shade to the animals, but do not +obstruct the view. All other weeds, and even cultivated crops, are cut +down to prevent the unseen approach of an enemy. When the cultivated +crop is some rapid-growing or dense one which they can not clear away, +they abandon the land rather than stay to be devoured. + +But clearing the prairie dog town of weeds is not sufficient to baffle +the coyote. In the absence of hiding places he takes to new methods of +hunting. J. H. Gaut, of the Biological Survey, records his observations +in a prairie dog town in New Mexico: + + The coyote started at one end of the town and ran at lightning speed + in a straight line until he cut off one from its burrow. When the + prairie dog saw that it could not get to its hole, it stopped and + began to kick until the coyote caught it and killed it in very much + the same way that a dog kills a rat. + +Besides rabbits and prairie dogs, the food of the coyote is known to +include the following mammals: + +Rice rats (_Oryzomys_), kangaroo rats (_Dipodomys_ and _Perodipus_), +wood rats (_Neotoma_), ground squirrels (_Ammospermophilus_, +_Callospermophilus_, and _Spermophilus_), woodchucks (_Marmota_), voles +(_Microtus_), pocket gophers (_Thomomys_), chipmunks (_Eutamias_), and +pocket mice (_Perognathus_). All of these are more or less harmful, +and the coyote performs an important service in preying upon them. The +service is not an occasional or a spasmodic one, but lasts throughout +the year and throughout the life of the coyote. When the number of +animals taking part in the work is considered, the enormous importance +of its bearing in maintaining the 'balance of nature' becomes apparent. + +The coyote is useful also as a scavenger. In the prairie country, +especially in winter, it comes into towns at night searching for +garbage thrown into the alleys. Here it finds remnants of meat from +the table, offal from game, and similar prizes. When hungry it will +reject no animal food, not even carrion. The slaughterhouses near the +towns are favorite feeding places, and the animals are often shot there +by moonlight. On the ranges they soon consume dead horses and cattle. +Leaving the bones clean. + + +INJURIOUS HABITS. + +Coyotes have been known to capture some of the wild animals that assist +man in his warfare' against insects and rodent pests. Among them are +the weasels. In August, 1903, a member of the Biological Survey met a +coyote carrying a weasel in the Pecos River Mountains of New Mexico at +an altitude of 11,600 feet. The coyote, frightened, dropped its prey +and ran off. The various kinds of skunks also are probably captured and +eaten. + + +GAME DESTROYED BY COYOTES. + +Coyotes destroy considerable game. Birds that roost and nest on the +ground are frequent victims. Quail, grouse, and wild ducks are caught +on the nest, and both birds and eggs are eaten. Wild ducks and geese, +when wounded and unable to fly, may be found along the banks of streams +and ponds, and the coyotes regularly patrol the shores in search of +them. In Oklahoma I found fresh coyote tracks each morning on the +grassy borders of a large artificial pond. Ducks resorted there in +considerable flocks, and I several times found that they had been eaten +by coyotes, as evidenced by tracks of the animals and feathers of the +birds. + +Like the larger wolves, the prairie wolf kills deer and antelope. In +hunting these they always go in packs of two or more and take turns +in the chase. They know that their prey runs in large circles, and at +intervals individuals drop out of the pursuit and, crossing a chord of +the circle, lie in wait until the quarry passes near them again. In +this way the wolves keep fresh until the pursued animal is exhausted, +but all of them are 'in at the death.' The present scarcity of these +large game animals gives few opportunities for such chases, but on the +plains they were formerly of frequent occurrence. + + +DEPREDATIONS ON FARM ANIMALS. + +The coyote is widely and unfavorably known as a destroyer of domestic +animals. Its depredations upon these indicate a marked change of +habit since the first settlement of the West. Previously its food was +restricted to the wild animals, including young buffalo, antelope, and +deer. The destruction of the larger game by man may partly account +for the change to farm animals as a diet, but it is probable that +the quality of the introduced food had much to do with the coyote's +preference for it. + +The coyote kills hens, ducks, geese, and turkeys. Its usual method of +capturing them in daytime is to lurk behind weeds or bushes until the +fowls come within reach. Turkeys, which range far afield in search +of grasshoppers and other insects, are frequent victims. At night +the coyote captures poultry from the roost, provided the door of the +henhouse is left open. A correspondent of the Biological Survey wrote +from Rexburg, Idaho, that one neighbor had lost 60 chickens and +another 30 in one night, taken by coyotes. Another correspondent, in +Mayer, Ariz., writes: + + Have lost about 100 chickens by coyotes. With the exception of killing + chickens, I believe them to be beneficial in keeping down the rabbit + pest. + +In approaching ranch buildings either by day or by night the coyote +conies from the leeward side and with great caution. Once satisfied +that no danger lurks in the shadows, it becomes exceedingly hold. +George A. Coleman, formerly a member of the Biological Survey, wrote +from London, Nemaha County, Nebr.: + + Depredations by wolves here upon henroosts and pigpens are of frequent + occurrence. I have observed them several times. They come with a dash + into the yard, take a chicken by the neck, and are gone before anyone + can stop them. In the same way they visit the pigpens and take the + young pigs away from the mother. In one instance they made way with + eight 6-weeks-old pigs in one night. At another time two of them + attacked a pig which would have weighed 75 pounds, and had they not + been stopped by dog's would probably have killed it. + +Few of the mammals of the farm are exempt from coyote raids. Even house +cats, roaming far from home in search of rodents or birds, become +victims. A correspondent of Forest and Stream, writing from Shirley +Basin, Wyo., October 7, 1896, says: + + I live on a ranch, and we are somewhat troubled by field mice and + mountain rats, and so we must keep cats. We have them, but we do not + keep them long, because they are caught by coyotes. Within a few + months I have lost four cats in this way. + +The coyote has been known to kill the young of most farm +animals--colts, calves, pigs, lambs, and goats. Colts are seldom +killed, because the dam can usually protect them. Calves are taken only +when the mother cow is feeding at a distance or has gone for water. +The coyotes lie watching in the grass until this opportunity comes. +Sometimes older animals are killed. Ranchmen in Oklahoma told the +writer that in winter yearling cattle in good condition are sometimes +killed by coyotes. To accomplish this two or more of them must hunt +together, and get the victim separated from the herd. + +Capt. P. M. Thorne, writing to the Biological Survey from Fort Lyon, +Colo.. January 4, 1887, says: + + Old cattlemen who have lived here nearly all their lives agree in + saying that the coyotes kill cattle, even full-grown ones. They say + that they have seen them at their work, which is done in packs; they + surround an animal and keep up a constant nipping at its legs until it + falls from weakness and loss of blood. + +In July. 1893, at Farmington, Utah, Vernon Bailey saw two coyotes +chasing calves and yearlings about a pasture, evidently trying to +separate one from the lot. He notes that in June. 1889, at St. Thomas, +Nev., coyotes killed a hog that weighed about 100 pounds. + + +THE COYOTE'S RELATION TO THE SHEEP INDUSTRY. + +The coyote is especially notorious as an enemy of the sheep industry. +In many parts of the West sheep raising has greatly languished because +of the depredations of wild animals upon the flocks. While some of +the injury is caused by the larger wolves, mountain lions, bears, and +lynxes, the coyotes are by far the most formidable enemy. They are +not only more abundant than the other animals mentioned, but they are +present throughout the year, and their depredations are a steady drain +upon the resources of the flock owner, comparable in extent to the +losses caused by worthless dogs in many parts of the country.[D] + +[Footnote D: In 1801 the loss from dogs was placed at $152,034 in Ohio +and $200,000 in Missouri. (Sheep Industry in the United States. U. S. +Dept of Agric, 1892.)] + +Dr. E. A. C. Foster, writing from Russell, Kans., in 1887, said: + + Of mammals, the prairie wolf is perhaps the most troublesome. It is + constantly preying upon sheep and lambs; so much so that sheep can + not be left alone without some of them falling a prey to this animal. + Should the herder be absent or out of view, the wolf makes a dash into + the flock and usually secures a lamb. + +William Lloyd, writing from Paint Rock, Concho County, Tex., said: + + In January. 1886, coyotes killed over 30 sheep near Fort Stockton, and + in March about 20 at Toyah, Tex. + +Charles W. Richmond, in 1888, wrote to the Survey from Gallatin County. +Mont., relating the following incident: + + While we were camped near Bozeman a flock of some 4,000 sheep were + driven by, and night overtook them on some foothills south of Bozeman. + During the night a flock of coyotes entered the ranks and the sheep + stampeded. Many ran over some bluffs, and next morning sheep, dead + and dying, were several feet deep at the foot of the bluffs. Nearly + 500 were counted in the pile, and for several days afterwards sheep, + with lacerated ears and torn flanks, wandered into barnyards in the + vicinity. The total number lost must have been heavy. + +In parts of the Southwest sheep growers have estimated their losses +from wild animals as equal to 20 percent of the flock. The average loss +reported from several States is 5 percent. In nearly all the States +west of the Mississippi the industry has declined in the past two +years, and one of the principal causes given is losses from coyotes. +At present the industry thrives only in sections where the local +conditions permit the herding of sheep in large flocks--a system highly +injurious to the pasturage. + +It is evident that the wealth of any State could be materially +increased if it were possible everywhere to keep small flocks of sheep, +Flocks increase rapidly under favorable conditions and good management, +and the cost of keeping them is small when herders can be dispensed +with. The double product, wool and million, usually places the profit +of handling them above that of cuttle or horses. The gains also come +oftener, since sheep mature in a year, while cattle and horse require +three. + +Vernon Bailey, chief field naturalist of the Biological Survey, writing +from Seguin, Tex., under date of November 8, 1904, says: + + No sheep are kept in tins part of Texas, and in talking with several + intelligent farmers I find that the reason invariably given is the + abundance of coyotes. The region is occupied by small farms, mainly 80 + to 500 acres, on which cotton, corn, sorghum, and vegetables are the + principal crops. There are few if any large stock ranches, but each + farm has its pastures for horses and cattle. These pastures are the + wild land covered with scattered mosquito, post oak, and patches of + chaparral and cactus. The native grasses are abundant and of excellent + quality, and in this mild climate furnish good feed throughout the + year. Many of the pastures are not half eaten down, and the dead and + dry vegetation becomes a nuisance. After harvest cattle and horses are + usually turned into cotton and grain fields, where they do good work + in cleaning up grass and weeds in the field and along the borders. + Still there is abundance of feed constantly going to waste, and a + small flock of sheep could be kept with great profit and no expense on + almost every farm. + + Fifty to two hundred sheep on a farm would at once make this part + of Texas the most important woolgrowing section of the State. + Other advantages to be gained would be keeping down the cactus and + chaparral, which are inclined to spread and occupy much of the ground, + keeping the edges of pastures and fields cleaned up so that they would + not harbor a host of predaceous insects and rodents in close proximity + to growing crops, and furnishing to the farmers and small towns a + supply of fresh meat other than chicken. In this warm climate beef + is rarely available, except in the larger towns. The advantages of + introducing sheep into this part of the country are acknowledged by + the farmers, and there seems to be no reason why it has not been done, + except that coyotes are common, large, and fond of mutton. + +Similar conditions prevail in many parts of the West and over large +areas. While a dozen years ago the low price of wool was an important +factor in causing farmers to abandon sheep raising, in recent years the +prices have been excellent. Fine washed wool was quoted in the New York +market February 6, 1905, at 32.35 cents per pound and in St. Louis on +the same date at 40.41 cents per pound. The price of tub-washed wool +at St. Louis was at no time during 1904 less than 30 cents per pound. +Unwashed wool ranged from 15 to 31 cents during most of the year. Yet +the number of sheep in the United States is now decreasing. Montana, +with an area of 146,000 square miles, leads the States in the number +of sheep kept, which is 5,638,957.[E] England, with an area of 50,867 +square miles, has about five times as many as Montana. In Montana sheep +are herded in immense flocks; in England every landowner and farmer +keeps a small flock. + +[Footnote E: Crop Reporter, U. S. Dept. Agric. February, 1905.] + +It is evident that the discouraging condition of the sheep industry +in the United States is not due to a lack of favorable climate nor to +the absence of suitable pasturage. Neither is it due to low prices of +wool and mutton. Indeed, in our markets mutton is coming to be more and +more in favor, and this growing demand may be one of the causes for +the present drain upon the flocks and the decrease in their numbers; +but the chief discouragement of the industry undoubtedly lies in the +depredations of worthless dogs and coyotes. + +The dog question is a serious one, especially in thickly settled +parts of the country, but the evil is best remedied by a resort to +taxation. The tax on dogs should be sufficiently high to put most of +the worthless ones out of existence. + + + + +MEANS OF DESTRUCTION. + + +The coyote problem is a serious one. Various methods of dealing with +it have been in vogue since coyotes first began to like mutton. None +of the methods have been entirely satisfactory, and some are signal +failures. All of them combined have resulted in a partial check on the +increase of coyotes in most parts of their range. Poison has probably +killed the greatest number of adult animals, and in some parts of +Mexico has almost destroyed some of the species, but no such success +has attended its use in the United States. + + +POISONING. + +Strychnine has always been a favorite weapon of hunters for wolf pelts +and bounties. A half century ago hunters on the prairies killed the +buffalo for its pelt, and added to their income by killing the wolves +that followed the daily slaughter. A little strychnine inserted in the +skinned carcass of a buffalo enabled them to secure many pelts of the +gray wolf and occasionally one of the coyote; but not often the latter: +he was regarded as much too shrewd to be taken by ordinary methods of +poisoning. Resides, the pelt was small and not sufficiently valuable in +comparison to warrant special efforts to secure it. Even in 1819 Thomas +Say, who first gave a scientific name to a coyote, found this animal +more abundant than the gray wolf.[F] Yet the number killed for their +pelts has never been great. + +[Footnote F: Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, p. 168, 1823.] + +As an illustration of the coyote's shrewdness in avoiding poisoned +bails, a farmer in Oklahoma gave the writer the following experience: +After butchering some hogs he poisoned a hogskin and left it with other +offal for a coyote that nightly prowled about his premises. In the +morning everything but the poisoned skin had been cleared away. He left +it two more nights, but it remained untouched. Thinking that the animal +would not eat the poisoned bait, he buried it. That night the coyote +dug up the pigskin and ate it, falling a victim to its deadly contents. +Since then the farmer says he has never failed to poison coyotes when +he buries the bait. + +Another method of poisoning coyotes is to insert the strychnine in +small chunks of meat that can be easily swallowed. Success by this +method depends largely upon the condition of the animal as regards +hunger, and may be helped by making what is known as a 'drag' in the +neighborhood of the bait. A small animal--a bleeding dead rabbit is +good--is dragged over the prairie and the morsels of bail left at +intervals along the 'drag.' Two days previous to a general coyote hunt +in Oklahoma a steer badly affected by 'lumpy jaw' was killed, opened, +and left in the middle of the area to be hunted. During the first night +coyotes howled all night in the vicinity of the carcass, but failed to +touch it. The second day a hind quarter was separated from the carcass +and dragged in a circuit of a mile or two, the drag coming hack to the +carcass. During the following night the coyotes picked the bones of the +carcass hare. Thus gorged with beef, they were in a condition favorable +for their slaughter in the drive of the following day. + +In the use of strychnine for wolves, the dry crystals of strychnia +sulphate are generally preferred. They should be inserted in the +bait with a knife blade, and the meat should be handled as little as +possible. It should be remembered that if precautions are not taken +there is a greater probability of killing dogs than wolves. The entire +neighborhood should know of the intended attempt, and all valuable dogs +should be confined until the operation is finished and uneaten baits +disposed of. + + +TRAPPING. + +Coyotes are not easily trapped. Some skill and a good knowledge +of their habits are requisites for success. They travel in rather +well-defined paths and usually hunt against the wind. Having a keen +sense of smell, they easily detect the tracks of man, and if they have +had previous experience of traps or guns they are suspicious of danger. +In the wildest parts of the country remote from settlement they are +more readily trapped. The chances for successful trapping decrease with +their familiarity with man, so that there is little probability that +the process will ever have much effect on their numbers. + +The writer knows a Kansas trapper who is quite successful in capturing +coyotes in a rather thickly settled part of that State. He steel traps +and sets them along hedges in places where the animals are accustomed +to pass through openings. No bait is used and the trap is partly +concealed by dead leaves or grasses. He claims that both the direction +of the wind and of the animal as it approaches the opening have much to +do with the chance for success. + +Field naturalists of the Biological Survey usually have experienced +little difficulty in securing coyotes in traps. A No. 3 steel trap +is generally used. A suitable place is selected along a narrow path +or trail and the trap sunk in the ground level with the surface +and concealed with fine grass, leaves, or other material that will +harmonize with the surroundings. At the same time care is taken that +the material used shall leave the jaws of the trap free to spring clear +of the covering. + +The trap should be fastened to a bush or stake, or if these are not +available, to a clog. For the last a pole lying on the ground is +best, since it may be utilized without moving it or disturbing the +surroundings. If the trap is anchored to a bush or small tree the chain +must be securely fastened with snap or wire. A stout stake over which +the ring will not slip, driven out of sight into the ground, is better. +Every part of the trap and chain is covered, and the ground left in as +natural and undisturbed condition as possible. + +Any kind of fresh meat will do for bait--rabbits and other small +rodents are often used, but larger baits seem to be more attractive. +it is also of advantage after setting the trap to make a 'drag' of +the bait for a quarter to a half mile, at the end of a rope from the +saddle horn, and finally to fasten it to a bush or stake close to the +trap, or cut it in bits and scatter all around the trap so that not all +can be reached by the coyote without walking over the trap. The skill +of the trapper and the situation of the trap will determine the best +arrangement. The suspicion of the coyote is lessened apparently after +following the bloody trail of a well-planned drag. + +Before setting the traps many trappers rub their feet and hands on a +skin or some strong-smelling meat or carcass to conceal the human odor. +Oil of anise or rhodium is sometimes used for the same purpose. Any +strong odor is likely to attract the attention of the coyote and allay +suspicion. Care must be taken not to spit on the ground or kneel or +throw down any clothing in the vicinity of the trap. A good plan is to +set a line of traps and leave them for a day or two, and then go the +rounds with a horse and drag, and bait the traps without dismounting. + + +HUNTING. + +Many ranchmen find dogs an efficient help in guarding against coyote +depredations. For this purpose the small varieties are useless, since +the coyotes do not fear them. Beagles and larger foxhounds are too +slow. Staghounds, Russian wolfhounds, greyhounds, and their crosses +are to be preferred: and at least three are needed to successfully +chase and safely kill a coyote. These dogs soon learn to hunt wolves, +and are seldom known to harm sheep. Ranches on which they are kept are +comparatively free from depredations of wild animals, while others +within a few miles are by do means exempt. Of course, the keeping of +these dogs on small farms would hardly be practicable. + +In the open country where there are few fences, hunting the coyote +with horse and dogs is an exciting sport. Fox chasing, although less +meritorious in purpose, may have some advantages as sport, because +the quarry is not always in sight and the skill of the hounds is +pitted against the cunning of the fox. In the chase of the wolf, as +in coursing hares, the race is straight away and without cover; and +when the quarry is overtaken the fight is won only because of the +overpowering numbers of the pursuers. The ordinary greyhound can easily +overtake a coyote, but is usually unable to kill it alone. + +Coyote drives, in which an entire community engage, have become a +popular feature of rural sport in some parts of the country. Such +drives have been held in Kansas, Colorado. Idaho. Oklahoma, and Texas; +but the methods employed depend largely on the local topography. The +writer was present at the second annual wolf hunt which took place +November 24, 1904, in the large Pasture Reserve near Chattanooga, Okla. + +On Thanksgiving morning the weather was perfect, and a large number +of people from the surrounding country collected in the village of +Chattanooga. A little before noon the men who were to drive the wolves +rode out of town and headed for their positions in the Pasture. As +there were less than 150 men, the area covered by the drive was not +so large as had been planned. The drivers were separated into three +divisions. The south division, which was under the immediate charge of +the commander of the hunt, Mr. J. W. Williams, proceeded about 7 miles +south of Chattanooga. The eastern and the western divisions were under +the charge of other captains and had their stations about 4 miles to +the southeast and southwest of the town. The area covered by the drive +was somewhat over 6 miles square. + +On the north side were the spectators, occupying a position about a +mile and a half from the town and extending over nearly 2 miles of +front, from which the land sloped gently to the south. The spectators +came from town in every sort of farm vehicle and numbered fully 500. + +In front of the line of vehicles some 50 men on horseback held in +reserve nearly 100 dogs, mostly greyhounds. Guns of all kinds were +ruled out of the final 'round-up,' and only lariats, dogs, and clubs +were permitted as weapons. + +The line of spectators was formed at 1 o'clock, but it was fully an +hour before the driving divisions were heard or seen. In the south a +beautiful mirage occupied the distant valley a white sheet of water +bordered by trees. It was on the surface of this mimic lake that we +first saw the riders galloping by twos. Soon after we faintly heard +their distant shouts; and when the shouts began to come clearer, the +coyotes also came up the valley by ones and twos, and at length by +threes and fours before the swiftly moving horsemen. + +When the first wolf was still a half mile distant, the dogs were +released and riders and dogs dashed to the front to head off the +animals. Hemmed in in front and rear, they broke to the right and to +the left, and many made good their escape through the thinner lines of +the east and the west divisions. + +The sport was fast and furious for a short time, but when a little +Later the dead and captured wolves were brought together in the town, +they were found to number only eleven in all. Two of them were roped +by cowboys during the drive and killed with pistols. Two were dragged +to death at the end of lariats. Seven were caught by the dogs in the +round-up, and two of these were brought in alive. Many escaped, but it +is impossible to estimate the number. + +Such hunts have considerable influence in decreasing the number of +coyotes and also afford an agreeable break in the monotony of frontier +life. Their purpose, however, is never admitted to be that of sport, +but to kill coyotes. + + +BOUNTIES. + +Activity in the warfare against the coyote has been considerably +stimulated by the payment of bounties from the public treasury of the +States and counties. Nearly all the States in which coyotes occur have +been for years maintaining such bounty systems. In some parts of the +West these are supplemented by rewards from stock associations or ranch +owners. The bounties from public funds have ranged from 25 cents to $5 +for each animal killed, but supplementary payments sometimes make them +as high as $15. + +The subject of bounties in general has been already discussed by Dr. +T. S. Palmer, of the Biological Survey.[G] Doctor Palmer refers to the +California coyote act of 1891, which was practically in force only +eighteen months, but which cost the State $187,485. As the bounty was +$5 per scalp, this represented the destruction of 37,493 coyotes. +Kansas, with a county bounty of $1 per animal, succeeds in destroying +about 20,000 each year. In addition to the bounty, the pelt of an adult +coyote is worth from 50 cents to $1.50, according to its condition. +However, most of the killing is accomplished in spring, when the female +and her young are dug out of dens and the pelage of the adults is not +in prime condition. + +[Footnote G: Extermination of Noxious Animals by Bounties. Yearbook U. +S. Dept of Agr., 1896, pp. 55-68.] + +Doctor Palmer rightly concludes that in practice bounties for the +destruction of noxious animals, paid from public funds, are usually +objectionable. Probably those on wolves and coyotes have been more +nearly justified than those on any other animals. While it is certain +that the larger wolves have greatly diminished in numbers under the +system, forces far more potent than mere rewards have operated against +them. Chief of these has been the encroachment of civilization. Coyotes +have in some places held their ground under bounties, and possibly +might have been held in check nearly as well under the operation of the +same forces that helped to decimate the timber wolves. But the observed +effect on the coyote of contact with settlements hardly justifies such +a conclusion. That the bounties in some places have done effective +work is undoubted; the question is as to whether the results have been +commensurate with the expenditures. However, the principal objection to +bounties is the ethical one, that they lead to fraudulent practices. + + + + +PROTECTION AGAINST COYOTES. + + +The discussion of the various means of destroying coyotes, and the +evident futility, thus far, of all of them combined to completely check +the increase of the species, leads naturally to the consideration +of means of preventing their depredations. Could domestic animals +be entirely protected, the coyotes would return to their original +beneficial occupation as scavengers and destroyers of noxious rodents. + +The plan that at once suggests itself is that of fencing against them. +This means of protection from wild animals has been long in vogue in +the Australian colonies and in South Africa. In Australia rabbits, +dingoes, and some species of kangaroos are successfully kept out of +pastures and crops by the use of wire nettings. In Cape Colony jackals, +particularly the red jackal (_Canis mesomelas_), are a great hindrance +to sheep and ostrich farming, and the success attending the use of wire +netting in Australia led to the introduction of similar fencing into +South Africa. The result has been highly gratifying. While the cost of +the fencing is high, the advantages from its use have been regarded as +more than compensating for the outlay. Mr. T. T. Hoole, president of +the Upper Albany (Cape Colony) Farmer's Association, in a paper read +at a meeting of that society[H] gives details of ten years' experience +with jackal-proof fencing. Among its advantages to sheep growers he +names: + + 1. Decreased cost of herding. + + 2. Increased value of the wool, about 3 cents per pound. + + 3. Increased number of lambs reared. + + 4. Increased value, owing to early maturity and condition of stock. + + 5. Less liability to contagion from scab. + + 6. Reduced death rate. + + 7. Additional security of the flock. + + 8. Improved condition of pasturage as against deterioration. + +[Footnote H: Agr. Jour. Cape of Good Hope, vol. 25, pp. 560-563, 1904.] + +The last item alone he regards as more than repaying the entire cost +of erection. Under the system of herding on the open veldt it becomes +necessary to protect from wild animals by driving the sheep to a +kraal for the night. In the vicinity of the kraal the ground is soon +trodden bare, and deep parallel paths are worn in the surface. In a +few years the torrential rains wash the paths into what are called +'sluits'--similar to the 'arroyos' of our own Southwest. + +In the western part of the United States the practice of keeping sheep +in vast herds has resulted in much deterioration of the ranges, due to +overcrowding, and the cost of herding has absorbed much of the profits +of sheep raising. The process of withdrawing lands for homesteads and +the various reservations has diminished the free range and increased +the crowding, until flock owners for their own protection have been +compelled to purchase lands for range purposes. The day of free +pasturage on public lands is fast passing, and with private ownership +of ranges, fencing must be resorted to to confine the flocks. The +additional expenditure necessary to make the fences proof against +coyotes would be inconsiderable when all the advantages are properly +weighed. + + + + +INVESTIGATIONS CONCERNING COYOTE-PROOF FENCING. + + +The Biological Survey has undertaken an investigation of the +feasibility of successfully fencing against the coyote. If a +coyote-proof fence of sufficient cheapness and durability to be +practicable can be brought into general use for pasturage, there is +no reason why the sheep industry in the west should not be revived +and greatly extended. If such a fence should at the same time prove +efficient against dogs, the benefit would extend to the whole country +and result in an enormous increase of the productive resources of our +farms. A coyote-proof fence would prove valuable, even if its use were +restricted to corrals and small pastures for ewes during the lambing +season. + +The writer, under instruction from the Chief of the Biological Survey, +spent several weeks in the field during October and November, 1904, +making such investigations as were possible during the limited time +at his disposal. For the purpose of testing the ability of coyotes to +pass over or through fences a unique experiment was made. The place +selected was Chattanooga, Comanche County, Okla. South of the town lies +the great Pasture Reserve, a large area practically without fences to +interfere with the chasing of wolves. Since coyotes were abundant and +the cowboys skilled in their chase, it was not difficult to procure the +needed animals in an uninjured condition. + +The experiment was made with all the forms of fence that could possibly +be obtained or built with the limited resources of a new country. A +long lane was first built, with sides 7 feet high, made with poultry +netting of a small mesh. Fourteen cross fences of heights from 30 to 66 +inches and of various designs were built at intervals along the lane. +They were arranged so that the coyotes, introduced at one end of the +lane, should have presented to them gradually increasing difficulty in +passing the fences. Two coyotes were released singly into the lane, and +their progress and methods of passing the cross fences were carefully +noted. One was badly frightened by the presence and noise of dogs and +men, but the experiment with the other was not made in public. + +The coyotes ran with their noses close to the ground and seemed to have +no knowledge of jumping. Neither of them succeeded in getting over a +fence more than 36 Inches in height. The method was one of climbing, +assisted by the hind feet, rather than of jumping. All attempts to pass +the obstructions began with efforts to get the muzzle through openings. +If the entire head could be thrust through and there was enough room +for the shoulders to spread out laterally, the whole wolf was able to +follow. Both went through rectangular openings, 5 by 12 inches and 5 by +8 inches, but the larger animal failed to pass a mesh 5 by 6 inches. +The smaller animal went through an opening 4 by 12 inches and another +5 by 6 inches. Had these openings been triangular in form the animal +could not have passed through. + +The following conclusions were drawn from the experiments: + +1. Prairie coyotes will not willingly jump over a fence above 30 inches +in height. + +2. They will readily climb over fences built of horizontal rails or +crossbars, especially in order to escape from captivity. + +3. Barbed wires do not deter them from crawling through a fence to +escape. Whether they would go through a closely built barbed wire fence +to attack sheep or poultry is still an open question. + +4. Woven wire fences should have meshes, when rectangular, less than 6 +by 6 inches to keep out coyotes. For such fences triangular meshes are +much better than square ones. + +5. In fencing against coyotes with woven fences care must be used to +see that there are no openings at the ground through which the animals +can force themselves, since they are more likely to crawl under a fence +than jump over it. + +In the experiments the animals, under some excitement, were attempting +to escape from confinement. In the judgment of the writer, the +experiments are insufficient to determine what a coyote would do if the +conditions were reversed and, impelled only by the stimulus of hunger, +he were attempting to enter an inclosure built of these fences. The +barriers would surely be far more formidable. Experiments with certain +types of fence, with sheep inclosed within them, and in a country +with wolves as plentiful as they are at Chattanooga, would be far more +conclusive in establishing a safe basis for practical recommendations +to farmers. + +The writer interviewed a number of farmers in Kansas who have had +experience with poultry and farm animals in coyote-infested country. +Several of them had for some years been using for corrals and small +pastures woven wire fences, and had found those from 57 to 60 inches +high entirely coyote-proof. These fences have triangular meshes and +are of sufficient weight to be suitable for all kinds of stock. Such +a fence, if set with the lower edge on the ground and anchored down +where necessary, can safely be recommended as coyote-proof. Their cost, +however, is possibly too great to bring them into general use for sheep +pastures. Where land is valuable and pastures of the best, they will +prove economical, for they have the merit of being both dog-proof and +coyote-proof. Dogs, both large and small, that by chance get inside the +inclosures are unable to get out, and have to be let out by the gate. + +Between these rather expensive fences and the cheapest form that may +be found efficient many grades may exist. In experiments to determine +the efficiency of any form it is necessary to consider the familiarity +of the animals with fences in general. In a new country a very simple +fence might be ample at first to keep out wolves, but ultimately would +prove insufficient. + +Mr. T. T. Hoole, of Cape Colony, Africa, in the paper already quoted, +gives the following experience in determining upon a jackal-proof fence: + + My first importation of 2 foot 6 inch netting served its purpose for + a year or more, when I found the jackals as troublesome as over. + The addition of a single barbed wire assisted for a time: but after + some years of experience and comparing notes. I found that nothing + short of a 3-foot netting and four barbed wires would be effective. + I have given the above particulars of my experience as a warning to + the inexperienced, that half measures are simply a waste of money and + that badly erected fences, although effective for a time, will end in + disappointment and failure. + +Mr. Hoole has 18 miles of the fence just described, while a neighboring +stockman has 45 miles built. The cost, including labor, when built of +the host material--sneezewood posts and kangaroo netting--was estimated +at £106 per mile--about $500. This fence was designed for ostriches, +cattle, springboks, and sheep: a fence intended for sheep alone could +be built for less. Materials and labor are both much more expensive +than in the United States. A fence similar to that described by Mr. +Hoole could be built in most parts of the West for about $200 to $250 +per mile. + +A writer in the Nor' West Farmer states that when he first began +sheep raising in Manitoba a 2-strand barbed wire fence was a complete +barrier to the coyotes, but that in less than two years they became +used to it and would go under or between the wires without hesitation. +More strands were added without effect, until a woven wire fence was +adopted, which proved satisfactory. + +In South Africa three types of fence have been in use for protection +against jackals, and each has advocates among the farmers. The cheapest +is built of strands of barbed wire placed close together and stayed at +intervals by light strips of wood fastened to the wires by staples. +In the second form the staying is done by light, smooth wire woven in +by machinery, involving more labor in the building. The third type is +that recommended by Mr. Hoole. It is more expensive, but seems always +to have stood the test of experience. The others have not always been +satisfactory, but their advocates claim that the fault has been in +construction and not in design. The jackals have entered the inclosures +through openings at the ground. + +Mr. J. H. Clarke, of Laytonville, Mendocino County. Cal., has for +several years succeeded in fencing coyotes from his sheep range. In a +letter to the Chief of the Biological Survey, dated March 1, 1905, he +describes the fence and relates his experience: + + The fence, inclosing nearly 4,000 acres, consists of redwood pickets + 6 feet long driven into the ground 1 foot and leaving spaces or + cracks not over 4 inches wide; posts 8 feet long and driven 2 feet, + projecting 1 foot above the pickets; two barbed wires stapled to the + posts 5 inches above the pickets and the same distance apart. These + should be on the outside of the posts. The pickets are driven evenly + by using a slat as a guide at the bottom and a line at the top. One + barbed wire is placed at the bottom on the outside to prevent digging. + The pickets are fastened to a No. 9 cable wire with a No. 13 wrapping + wire. The posts are set 12 feet apart, or less, according to the + surface--at top and bottom of each rise or indentation. + + Where gulches or small streams are crossed boxes and gates are put in. + Where larger streams are encountered a dam is first put in and the + gate so swung as to rest on or against the dam head in the dry season. + + The cost of construction varied from $320 to $400 per mile. Galvanized + wire was used, and of the barbed the thickest-set four-pointed wire + obtainable. If four-point wire could be had, with sharp points set not + over 2 inches apart, the top wire might be dispensed with. + + While this fence was begun in 1897, it was net finished until three + years ago. It was partly experimental at first, and at the end of + the second year only that portion of the range used for lambing was + inclosed with a coyote-proof fence. We do not know that a coyote has + ever scaled or jumped it. A very large coyote that got in through an + accidentally 'propped' floodgate, though chased by dogs all day, could + not be made to jump out, even when cornered. Considering the steep, + wild, and broken nature of the country, with several 'slides' in the + fence that could not be avoided when building, and which move and + displace the fence during hard storms, it is net surprising that a few + coyotes have gotten in. Fortunately, partition fences have aided in + the capture of those before much damage was done. Two obstacles are + encountered in keeping up this fence--trespassers, who cut or break a + picket to get through, and slides. + + Coyotes are very persistent, and when they see young lambs on the + opposite side will follow the fence for miles, trying to find a hole. + * * * None have gotten in this season. + + When we began to fence against them the coyotes wore literally driving + sheep out of the country. * * * Horses and cattle have taken their + places, but return less than half the profit sheep did prior to the + coyote's inroads. Excessive rains in winter and irregularity of + landscape preclude the practicability of close herding. With us it was + either abandon sheep or fence the pest out. Fortunately we adopted the + latter. + +While the fence used by Mr. Clarke is expensive, the complete success +of his experiment is of much interest. In most parts of the West woven +wire would be cheaper than pickets and would require less labor in its +erection. Where the land is as uneven as that just described, the use +of woven wire may be impracticable. + +Mr. D. W. Hilderbrand, of California, who has built coyote fences for +ranchmen in the San Joaquin Valley, recommends a 3-inch mesh woven wire +fence 36 to 40 inches in height, with two barbed wires on top, 5½ +inches apart, and one at the bottom. He recommends that the posts be +set 20 to 30 feet apart. + +From data now available it seems reasonably certain that a fence +constructed of woven wire with a triangular mesh not over 6 inches +across, and of a height of 28 to 42 inches, supplemented by two or +three tightly stretched barbed wires, would prove to be coyote-proof. +It is difficult to make exact estimates of the cost. Woven fences +differ in weight, price, and durability, and freight charges on +materials depend on the distance from distributing points. The cost +of posts and labor varies much. An estimate based on so many variable +factors is of little value, but an average of $200 per mile would +probably allow the use of the best materials. + +Further experiments with wire fences will be made by the Biological +Survey in cooperation with sheep growers in the West, and the results +will be given to the public as early as practicable. The matter +is one of great economic importance, and the Survey will welcome +correspondence with persons interested in the subject. + + + * * * * * + + +Transcriber's Note + + +The total number of coyotes in the table on page 10 was changed to +match the sum of the numbers in the table. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Coyotes in Their Economic Relations, by +David E. 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Alternatively, comment out lines 6 and 58, uncommenting 60 to print the a list of tuples of words and frequencies. Full instructions at https://sites.google.com/site/sd16spring/home/project-toolbox/word-frequency-analysis diff --git a/frequency.py b/frequency.py index acaa449..8e90dcc 100644 --- a/frequency.py +++ b/frequency.py @@ -2,23 +2,59 @@ Project Gutenberg """ import string +import re +from tabulate import tabulate + def get_word_list(file_name): """ Reads the specified project Gutenberg book. Header comments, punctuation, and whitespace are stripped away. The function returns a list of the words used in the book as a list. - All words are converted to lower case. + All words are NOT converted to lower case, they will be converted in the second function. """ - pass + f = open(file_name, "r") + lines = f.readlines() + + start_line = 0 + end_line = 0 + while lines[start_line].find("START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG") == -1: + start_line += 1 + while lines[end_line].find("END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG") == -1: + end_line += -1 + lines = lines[start_line+1:end_line-1] + + word_list = [] + word_pattern = re.compile('([\w\']+)') + for line in lines: + word_list += re.findall(word_pattern, line) + + return word_list + def get_top_n_words(word_list, n): """ Takes a list of words as input and returns a list of the n most frequently occurring words ordered from most to least frequently occurring. - word_list: a list of words (assumed to all be in lower case with no - punctuation + word_list: a list of words (assumed to have no + punctuation, but NOT all lowercase) n: the number of words to return returns: a list of n most frequently occurring words ordered from most frequently to least frequentlyoccurring """ - pass \ No newline at end of file + word_frequencies = {} + for word in word_list: + word_frequencies[word.lower()] = word_frequencies.get(word.lower(), 0) + 1 + + top_words = sorted(word_frequencies, key=word_frequencies.get, reverse=True)[:n] + return [(word_frequencies[word], word) for word in top_words] + +def print_tabled_words(top_words_data): + print tabulate( + [("Frequency", "Word")] + top_words_data, headers="firstrow", tablefmt="rst") + +if __name__ == "__main__": + word_list = get_word_list("46421.txt") + top_words_data = get_top_n_words(word_list, 100) + print_tabled_words(top_words_data) + # unformatted for no tabulate install: + # print top_words_data